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RESEARCH METHODS LECTURE NOTES

Edition: V2.2

William L. Palya
Jacksonville State University

Copyright (c) 2000

Table of Contents



Volume 1



Volume 2


CHAPTER 1

The Logical Foundations Of Psychology


  1. Relevance of Science to Discovery and Application Fields of Psychology
    1. The Challenge
    2. Onus: what you accept as your obligation
      1. instances of the first type of onus
        1. do unto others as you would have them do unto you
        2. greatest good for greatest number
        3. others' interest before self interest
        4. efficiently eliminate ignorance or relieve suffering
        5. deal with your limitations honestly
      2. set one label: be ethical
      3. instances of the second type of onus
        1. good consumer / separate illusion from reality
        2. ability to implement recondite information
        3. solve problems
        4. make consistent progress
        5. prove effectiveness
          1. for funding agencies
          2. for the court
          3. for employment success
            1. attract customers
            2. upward mobility
            3. job security
      4. set two label: be pragmatic
    3. Resulting obligation: what you must do to solve your onus
      1. demand what is labeled "truth"
      2. have what is labeled "understanding"
    4. Definitions: operationalization of the solution to your onus
      1. definition or meaning of “truth”
        1. empirical
        2. reliable
        3. multiple converging evidence
        4. consensually validated
        5. operationally/functionally defined
          1. correspondence with referent
          2. ontological validity
          3. conceptual fine point: nominalism versus essentialism
        6. coda
      2. definition or meaning of “understanding”
        1. describe
        2. predict
        3. control
        4. synthesize
        5. explain
    5. Solution to onus
    6. Summary
      1. scientific psychology satisfies your onus
        1. to be ethical
        2. to be pragmatic
      2. graphics illustrating the logic underlying the choice of science

  2. The Nature of Explanation
    1. Conceptual precursor: description, prediction, cause, and explanation
    2. What is an explanation
    3. Characteristics of explanation
      1. truthful
        1. analogy versus explanation
        2. folklore versus explanation
      2. explicit
        1. set definition
          1. elements
          2. rules
            1. functional definition
        2. specificity
          1. qualitative explanation
          2. quantitative explanation or "model"
        3. nontautological
      3. testable
        1. confirmable
        2. falsifiable
      4. minimal error
        1. parsimonious
        2. general
        3. optimal tradeoff
      5. comprehendible
      6. systematic or principled
    4. Types of explanatory mechanisms
      1. explanation via confusion, emotion, empathy; or “rhetorical”
        1. tenacity / novelty
        2. authority / antiestablishment
        3. subjectivism
        4. intuition / a priori
        5. rationalism / a priori
        6. tautology
        7. lies
          1. adding information which is not factual (lie of commission)
          2. removing information which is of importance (lie of omission)
        8. summary
      2. explanation via specification of the goal or end; or “teleological”
        1. with intentionality
        2. without intentionality
      3. explanation via appeal to inner cause; or “reductionistic”
        1. empirical
        2. nonempirical
          1. with basis in folklore
          2. with substantial converging support
        3. flaw of reductionism as psychological explanation
          1. unobserved verbal activity as a cause of behavior
            1. reliability
            2. validity
              1. Freud
              2. brain structures
              3. desensitize phobia without verbal
              4. blind sight
              5. split brain research
      4. explanation via specification of functional relationships; or “correlative”
        1. temporal context
          1. historical (time scale of adaptation)
          2. current
          3. potential
        2. end state, functional, or teleonomic explanation
        3. assembly level of explanatory unit
          1. molecular
          2. molar
        4. Conceptual follow-up: Mentalistic versus correlative (behavioral) explanations

  3. Characterization of What Science Is and Does (its definition)
    1. Product
      1. truth
      2. understanding
    2. Goals of science
      1. research to understand (pure research)
      2. research to solve a particular problem(applied research)
      3. dispensing solutions (practitioner / technologist)
    3. Lexical
    4. Activities
      1. noticing a phenomenon
        1. type of activity
        2. type of explanation
      2. casual manipulation of empirical variables
        1. type of activity
        2. type of explanation
      3. specification of functional relationships
        1. type of activity
        2. type of explanation
      4. emergence of mechanism of prediction
        1. type of activity
        2. type of explanation
      5. development of a general and integrated mechanism of prediction (law)
        1. type of activity
        2. type of explanation
    5. Assumptions
    6. Proscriptions
    7. Misconceptions
    8. Motivations
    9. Paradigms: The mechanism underlying the success of science
      1. “The Structure of Scientific Revolutions”
        1. a role for history
        2. the route to normal science
        3. the nature of normal science
        4. normal science as puzzle solving
        5. the priority of paradigms
        6. anomaly and the emergence of scientific discovery
        7. crisis and the emergence of scientific revolutions
        8. the response to crisis
        9. the nature and necessity of scientific revolutions
        10. revolutions as changes of world view
        11. the invisibility of revolutions
        12. the resolution of revolutions
        13. progress through revolution
        14. summary
      2. Case history of a scientific revolution


CHAPTER 2

ParadigmaticPsychology


  1. Relevance of a Paradigmatic Framework
    1. Decision based on paradigmatic framework (science)
      1. systematic, public, accountable rationale for decision
      2. systematic, public, accountable framework with which to organize results
      3. feedback and, therefore, systematic advance
    2. Decision by “whim,” “guess,” or “intuition” (eclectic)
      1. no systematic rationale or decision
      2. no systematic framework with which to organize results
      3. no feedback and, therefore, no systematic advance

  2. The Context Within Which Science Exists
    1. The universal set: All human endeavors
    2. Set of interest: search for answer to question “why?”
    3. Subset of interest: only satisfactory answer
      1. what produces satisfactory answer: science
        1. review: the product of science: truth and understanding
          1. truth
          2. understanding
        2. review: the process of science: generating satisfactory answers
          1. characteristics of what science is and does (its definition)
        3. preview: the problem addressed by science: changes in nature
            4. i. knowledge is understanding the covariances in nature
    4. Summary: of all human endeavors, truthfully answering why is labeled science

  3. The Paradigmatic Context of Psychology Within Science
    1. Dimensions of scientific paradigms
      1. the goal of the activity
        1. to understand nature
        2. to solve immediate problems
        3. to dispense solutions
      2. molarity of paradigmatic context or level of analysis (unit domain)
        1. levels of molarity
          1. existential adaptation
          2. atomic adaptation
          3. cellular adaptation
          4. behavioral adaptation
          5. participational adaptation
          6. systematic adaptation
        2. summary of levels of molarity
        3. spatial representations of levels of molarity
        4. comparative analysis of molarity * goals
      3. time scale of adaptation (time domain)
        1. temporal duration of change
          1. “instantaneous” or “immediate” adaptation
          2. “short-term” adaptation
          3. “medium-term” adaptation
          4. “long-term” adaptation
        2. evolutionary shaping through intermediate forms
        3. Fourier analysis metaphor for time scales of behavior
        4. comparative analysis of time scales * issues
    2. Spatial representation of behavioral equilibrium paradigm
      1. spherical representation of level of molarity * time scale
        1. level of molarity as a point on a radius
        2. time scale as a point on a surface
      2. cubic representation of goals * levels * time scales


CHAPTER 3

Knowledge


  1. Conceptual Precursor: Knowledge of What? What is Knowledge?
    1. Source
    2. Vehicle
    3. The nature of knowledge

  2. Knowledge is Covariance
    1. Simple dichotomous change and a necessary and sufficient precursor
    2. Continuous changes and continuous relationships
      1. continuous predictor (x)
      2. continuous predicted (y)
      3. continuous relationship between x and y
    3. Multivariate change
      1. number of independent variables
        1. one IV
        2. many IVs
      2. number of dependentvariables
        1. one DV
        2. many DVs
    4. Dynamics of equilibrium state
      1. neutral equilibrium
      2. stable equilibrium
      3. unstable equilibrium
      4. metastable
    5. Type of variance and its conceptualization
      1. accountable variance or covariance
        1. models of accountable variance
          1. cause effect models
            1. mechanistic models
            2. functional models
          2. correlation models
      2. residual variance, error, or ignorance
        1. experimental solution
        2. assumption of nonlinear dynamics
        3. assumption of “true score” and “random error”
        4. delegate problem

  3. Issues Pertaining to Knowledge
    1. Paradigmatic Context of Research
      1. epistemology
      2. paradigmatic level
        1. most global context(field)
          1. molarity, level of analysis or unit domain
          2. time scale of adaptation or time domain
        2. context (research specialty or area)
        3. immediate context (researcher's own lab)
    2. Purpose
      1. for curiosity
      2. construction of functional context
        1. relevant / irrelevant variables
        2. parameter documentation
        3. functional similarity
      3. for theory testing
    3. Degree to which research is integrated within paradigmatic context
      1. extent
      2. ramifications
        1. multiple converging support
        2. predictable and understood generalizations
    4. Breadth of research findings
      1. production of single fact, isolated treatment effect
      2. production of quantitative function
    5. Generality or level of abstraction of research findings
      1. face value or per se
      2. specific only as a model of something else
        1. aspects of features
          1. relevant/irrelevant
        2. target
          1. model other specific situations
          2. model as an instantiation of a fundamental process
    6. Type of knowledge produced by the research
      1. capacity of organism: structural
      2. behavioral processes: functional
        1. describe a behavior's static properties
        2. describe a behavior's dynamic properties
        3. describe a behavior's relationship with covariates
        4. specify a behavior's controlling factors
          1. modulating influences
          2. causal factors
            1. sufficient cause
            2. necessary cause
            3. material cause
            4. efficient cause
        5. integrate the functional relationship within a larger framework
    7. Phase of research helix
      1. analysis
        1. empirical
        2. theoretical
      2. synthesis
        1. empirical
          1. direct synthesis
          2. modulation via necessary element
          3. demonstration with other subjects or species
        2. theoretical synthesis or paradigmatic integration
          1. general theoretical model
          2. prediction
          3. integration of divergent phenomena

  4. "Knowledge" Erroneously Attributed to Transcendental Realization

  5. Knowledge Gained Through Actual Experience (Empirical Research)
    1. Procedures for gathering empirical information
      1. information obtained without manipulation (observation)
        1. procedures
          1. naturalistic observation
          2. restricted observation
            1. restricted with respect to subject
              1. case study
            2. restricted with respect to information collected
              1. survey
              2. check sheet
          3. contrived observation
            1. with respect to context or events
            2. with respect to subjects
      2. information obtained with manipulation (experimentation)
        1. procedures
          1. single subject designs
            1. ABA
            2. multibaseline
            3. schedules under discriminative control
          2. group designs
            1. quasi experimental design
            2. single independent variable
              1. randomly assigned
              2. matched
              3. blocked
              4. repeated measures
            3. multivariate designs
              1. factorial
              2. mixed
              3. hierarchical (nested)
              4. repeated measures
      3. other
        1. procedures
          1. technological by-product
          2. puttering around / accident / serendipity

  6. Knowledge Gained Through Vicarious Experience
    1. Types
      1. language
      2. logic
        1. deductive logic
        2. inductive logic
      3. mathematics
    2. Utility
      1. unproductive
      2. productive
        1. true
        2. understood
    3. Spatial representation of epistemological * generality * rigor


CHAPTER 4

The Contribution of Knowledge to the Field of Psychology


  1. Why Perform Experiments
    1. Because it produces knowledge
      1. because knowledge is truthfully understanding covariance
        1. because truthfully understanding covariance allows you to help others and help yourself
    2. Because it is fun
      1. indulge curiosity
      2. challenge
      3. social reinforcers

  2. Sources of Problems to Solve
    1. Research problem from expert
    2. Research problem from folklore
    3. Research problem from insight
    4. Research problem from informal discussion
    5. Research problem from knowledge of techniques and apparatus
    6. Research problem from reading the literature
      1. sources of research literature
      2. how to find additional sources
      3. how to read research articles
        1. what was the research problem and why must it be answered?
        2. what subjects were used and why?
        3. what apparatus or setting was used and why?
        4. what general procedure was used and why?
        5. was the procedure applicable and the best available?
        6. what was the independent variable and what is its interpretation?
        7. what were potential confounds and how were they controlled?
        8. what was the dependent variable and what is its interpretation?
        9. what were the actual results and what are their reliability?
        10. how sensitive was the dependent measure?
        11. how much of the variability obtained could be accounted for?
        12. to what extent was there generality?
        13. what was the significance of the findings?
    7. Research problem from a paradoxical incident or conflicting results
    8. Research problem deduced from paradigms or theories

  3. Activities Which Solve Problems and Produce Better Knowledge
    1. What if ... / indulgence of curiosity
    2. Verification, replication and systematic replication
      1. direct replication
      2. systematic replication
    3. Improving measurement
    4. Unconfounding
    5. Specialization
    6. Generalization
    7. Technological advancement
    8. Recombination
    9. Establishing the existence of a new phenomenon
    10. Testing prediction from theory
    11. Construction of functional context
    12. Integration of finding into an existing coherent framework

  4. The Process of Discovery
    1. Research strategy
      1. deductive research
        1. discovery via premeditated design
          1. comparison of results to an a priori prediction
            1. based on intuition
            2. based on theory
            3. based on model (quantitative theory)
          2. post hoc realization of functional relationship
      2. inductive research
        1. discovery via post hoc organization of data
          1. comparison of results to known functions
          2. description of functional relationship
            1. speculation
            2. eventuating in a theory
            3. eventuating in a model (quantitative theory)
        2. discovery via construction of functional context
    2. Research design
      1. conceptual precursor
        1. difference measures to cancel confounds
          1. group design
          2. single subject design
        2. assumption that unlikely by chance is true effect
      2. two basic steps in research design
        1. first: differences are caused by differences
        2. second: compare to criterion for when enough is enough
      3. review: chance, confound, and true effect
    3. Research tactics
      1. be committed
      2. focus on productive relationships
        1. reliable robust relationship
        2. apt and optimal elements
        3. large potential for gain
        4. drop everything if necessary
        5. be open-minded
      3. optimize visualization
      4. maximize your chances to discover
        1. simplify to essential case
        2. sort in terms of similarities and differences
        3. search for regularities
        4. recognize errors as breakthroughs
        5. be alert, ingenious and relentless
        6. be well read
      5. balance novel and mainstream
      6. be scrupulously honest

  5. Writing-up Research Discoveries
    1. Research paper template
      1. title
      2. abstract
      3. introduction
      4. subjects
      5. apparatus
      6. procedure
      7. results
      8. discussion
    2. APA research paper style sheet
      1. miscellaneous
      2. the use of abbreviations
      3. the use of numbers
      4. measurements
      5. proofreader's marks
      6. page arrangements
      7. sources of information
      8. sample paper with annotations


CHAPTER 5

OPTIMIZATION OF RESEARCH


  1. Reliability Maximization
    1. Explicit definitions
    2. Quantified descriptions
      1. conceptual precursor, measurement or conversion to vicarious system
        1. reliability
        2. validity
          1. sources of invalidity
            2. (1) error in measurement
          2. kinds of invalidity
            3. (1) systematic
            (2) unsystematic
        3. type measurement operation
          1. objective quantification
          2. subjective scaling
            3. (1) rate
            (2) rank
            (3) magnitude estimation
            (4) pair comparison
        4. amount of information retained in the vicarious system
          1. measurement scales
            2. (1) nominal numbers
            (2) ordinal numbers
            (3) interval numbers
            (4) ratio numbers
            (5) summary
          2. type of step
        5. class of inference
          1. "none" or direct
          2. inferred construct
          3. behavior to behavior inference
      2. conceptual precursor, grouping
        1. assumptions
          1. measure + error
          2. measure + effect
      3. conceptual precursor, graphical representation of group data
        1. distance as representing quantity
        2. space as characterizing group data
          1. tally graph
          2. bar graph
          3. histogram
          4. frequency polygon
          5. frequency distribution
      4. quantifying group data
        1. central tendency
        2. dispersion
        3. shape of distribution
        4. relationship between subgroups
        5. other methods of quantifying group data
          1. “statistics” as representing groups
          2. other
    3. Multiple convergent evidence
    4. Maximized variability contained within rule
    5. Appropriate research technique
      1. familiar context
      2. accurate description, empirical validity
        1. direct
        2. indirect
      3. procedurally accurate
      4. correct design
        1. experimental
        2. statistical
      5. technologically sophisticated
      6. large signal to noise ratio
      7. proper control of confounding
        1. elimination
        2. equalization or matching
        3. explicit balancing
        4. balancing by theoretical notions
        5. randomization
    6. Use of a revealing analytical perspective
      1. correct specification of controlling and controlled variables or relevant independent and dependent variables as axes
      2. correct level of analysis or transformation of the data
    7. Insightful tactics
    8. Established continuity with available knowledge and theoretical net
    9. Direct and systematic replication


  2. Generality Maximization
    1. Conceptual precursor, terms applicable to issue of generality
    2. Maximized reliability
    3. Maximized similarity
    4. Maximized paradigmatic validity (understanding)
    5. Conceptual issue, the impact of the chosen basis for generality
    6. Applications issues
      1. subject variables and sampling
        1. random sampling
        2. rational sampling
      2. apparatus or setting variables
      3. procedural variables


  3. Detectability Maximization
    1. Maximization of statistical detectability
      1. decrease criterion stringency
      2. increase signal to noise ratio
        1. increase the magnitude of the signal
          1. methodologically
            1. subject
            2. apparatus / setting
            3. procedure
          2. mathematically
          3. graphical example
        2. decrease the magnitude of the noise
          1. methodologically
            1. subject
            2. apparatus / setting
            3. procedure
          2. mathematically
          3. graphical example
    2. Maximization of paradigmatic detectability
      1. conceptual precursor
      2. decrease criterion stringency
      3. increase signal to noise ratio
        1. increase compellingness of the new paradigm
        2. demonstrate failures in the existing paradigm


  4. Meaningfulness Maximization
    1. Maximization of statistical meaningfulness
      1. conceptual precursor - accountable variance
      2. increase percentage of accountable variance
        1. increase magnitude of effect (signal)
          1. methodologically
          2. mathematically
        2. increase magnitude of noise in baseline
          1. methodologically
          2. mathematically
    2. Maximization of paradigmatic meaningfulness
      1. present
        1. know paradigm
          1. understand its assumptions
          2. see extensions, simplifications or contradictions
      2. future
        1. know paradigm and understand how it relates to reality
        2. have a better insight into reality
        3. inform other people of the “better way”


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Date Last Reviewed : November 29, 2002